Tag Archives: likelihood

Probabilistic Foundations of Econometrics, part 1

In a series of posts, I wanted to get into details of the history and foundations of econometric and machine learning models. It will be some sort of online version of our joint paper with Emmanuel Flachaire and Antoine Ly, Econometrics and Machine Learning (initially writen in French), that will actually appear soon in the journal Economics and Statistics. This is the first one…

The importance of probabilistic models in economics is rooted in Working’s (1927) questions and the attempts to answer them in Tinbergen’s two volumes (1939). The latter have subsequently generated a great deal of work, as recalled by Duo (1993) in his book on the foundations of econometrics, and more particularly in the first chapter “The Probability Foundations of Econometrics”. It should be recalled that Trygve Haavelmo was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1989 for his “clarification of the foundations of the probabilistic theory of econometrics”. Because as Haavelmo (1944) (initiating a profound change in econometric theory in the 1930s, as recalled in Morgan’s Chapter 8 (1990)) showed, econometrics is fundamentally based on a probabilistic model, for two main reasons. First, the use of statistical quantities (or “measures”) such as means, standard errors and correlation coefficients for inferential purposes can only be justified if the process generating the data can be expressed in terms of a probabilistic model. Second, the probability approach is relatively general, and is particularly well suited to the analysis of “dependent” and “non-homogeneous” observations, as they are often found on economic data.We will then assume that there is a probabilistic space (\Omega,\mathcal{F},\mathbb{P}) such that observations (y_i,\mathbf{x}_i) are seen as realizations of random variables (Y_i, \mathbf{X}_i) . In practice, however, we are not very interested in the joint law of the couple (Y, \mathbf{X}) : the law of \mathbf{X} is unknown, and it is the law of Y conditional on \mathbf{X} that will be interested in. In the following, we will note x a single observation, \mathbf{x} a vector of observations, X a random variable, and \mathbf{X} a random vector. Abusively, \mathbf{X} may also designate the matrix of individual observations (denoted \mathbf{x}_i), depending on the context.

Foundations of mathematical statistics

As recalled in Vapnik’s (1998) introduction, inference in parametric statistics is based on the following belief: the statistician knows the problem to be analyzed well, in particular, he knows the physical law that generates the stochastic properties of the data, and the function to be found is written via a finite number of parameters[1]. To find these parameters, the maximum likelihood method is used. The purpose of the theory is to justify this approach (by discovering and describing its favorable properties). We will see that in learning, philosophy is very different, since we do not have a priori reliable information on the statistical law underlying the problem, nor even on the function we would like to approach (we will then propose methods to construct an approximation from the data at our disposal, as in (1998)). A “golden age” of parametric inference, from 1930 to 1960, laid the foundations for mathematical statistics, which can be found in all statistical textbooks, including today. As Vapnik (1998) states, the classical parametric paradigm is based on the following three beliefs:

  1. To find a functional relationship from the data, the statistician is able to define a set of functions, linear in their parameters, that contain a good approximation of the desired function. The number of parameters describing this set is small.
  2. The statistical law underlying the stochastic component of most real-life problems is the normal law. This belief has been supported by reference to the central limit theorem, which stipulates that under large conditions the sum of a large number of random variables is approximated by the normal law.
  3. The maximum likelihood method is a good tool for estimating parameters.

In this section we will come back to the construction of the econometric paradigm, directly inspired by that of classical inferential statistics.

Conditional laws and likelihood

Linear econometrics has been constructed under the assumption of individual data, which amounts to assuming independent variables (Y_i, \mathbf{X}_i) (if it is possible to imagine temporal observations – then we would have a process (Y_t, \mathbf{X}_t) – but we will not discuss time series here). More precisely, we will assume that, conditionally to the explanatory variables \mathbf{X}_i, the variables Y_i are independent. We will also assume that these conditional laws remain in the same parametric family, but that the parameter is a function of \mathbf{x}. In the Gaussian linear model it is assumed that: (Y\vert \mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x})\overset{\mathcal{L}}{\sim}\mathcal{N}(\mu(\mathbf{x}),\sigma^2)~~~~ (1)where \mu(\mathbf{x})=\beta_0+\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta} and \mathbf{\beta}\in\mathbb{R}^{p}.

It is usually called a ‘linear’ model since \mathbb{E}[Y\vert \mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x}]=\beta_0+\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta} is a linear combination of covariates[2]. It is said to be a homoscedastic model if Var[Y|\mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x}]=\sigma^2, where \sigma^2 is a positive constant. To estimate the parameters, the traditional approach is to use the Maximum Likelihood estimator, as initially suggested by Ronald Fisher. In the case of the Gaussian linear model, log-likelihood is written:  \log\mathcal{L}(\beta_0, \mathbf{\beta},\sigma^2\vert \mathbf{y},\mathbf{x}) = -\frac{n}{2}\log[2\pi\sigma^2] - \frac{1}{2\sigma^2}\sum_{i=1}^n (y_i-\beta_0-\mathbf{x}_i^T\mathbf{\beta})^2Note that the term on the right, measuring a distance between the data and the model, will be interpreted as deviance in generalized linear models. Then we will set: (\widehat{\beta}_0,\widehat{\mathbf{\beta}},\widehat{\sigma}^2)=\text{argmax}\left\lbrace\log\mathcal{L}(\beta_0, \mathbf{\beta},\sigma^2\vert \mathbf{y},\mathbf{x})\right\rbraceThe maximum likelihood estimator is obtained by minimizing the sum of the error squares (the so-called “least squares” estimator) that we will find in the “machine learning” approach.

The first order conditions allow to find the normal equations, whose matrix writing is \mathbf{X}^T[\mathbf{y}-\mathbf{X}\mathbf{\beta}]=\mathbf{0}, which can also be written (\mathbf{X}^T \mathbf{X})\mathbf{\beta}=\mathbf{X}^T \mathbf{y}. If \mathbf{X} is a full (column) rank matrix, then we find the classical estimator:\widehat{\mathbf{\beta}}=(\mathbf{X}^T\mathbf{X})^{-1}\mathbf{X}^T\mathbf{y}=\mathbf{\beta}+(\mathbf{X}^T\mathbf{X})^{-1}\mathbf{X}^{-1}\mathbf{\varepsilon}~~~(2)using residual-based writing (as often in econometrics), y=\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta}+\varepsilon. Gauss Markov’s theorem ensures that this estimator is the unbiased linear estimator with minimum variance. It can then be shown that \widehat{\mathbf{\beta}}\sim\mathcal{N}(\mathbf{\beta},\sigma^2(\mathbf{X}^T\mathbf{X})^{-1}), and in particular, if we simply need the first two moments : \mathbb{E}[\widehat{\mathbf{\beta}}]=\mathbf{\beta}~~~Var[\widehat{\mathbf{\beta}}]=\sigma^2 [\mathbf{X}^T\mathbf{X}]^{-1}In fact, the normality hypothesis makes it possible to make a link with mathematical statistics, but it is possible to construct this estimator given by equation (2) without that Gaussian assumption. Hence, if we assume that Y|\mathbf{X} has the same distribution as \mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta}+\varepsilon, where \mathbb{E}[\varepsilon]=0, Var[\varepsilon]=\sigma^2 and Cov[X_j,\varepsilon]=0 for all j, then \widehat{\mathbf{\beta}} is an unbiased estimator of \mathbf{\beta} with smallest variance[3] among unbiased linear estimators. Furthermore, if we cannot get normality at finite distance, asymptotically this estimator is Gaussian, with \sqrt{n}(\widehat{\mathbf{\beta}}-\mathbf{\beta})\overset{\mathcal{L}}{\rightarrow}\mathcal{N}(\mathbf{0},\mathbf{\Sigma})as n\rightarrow\infty, for some matrix \mathbf{\Sigma}.
The condition of having a full rank \mathbf{X} matrix can be (numerically) strong in large dimensions. If it is not satisfied, (\mathbf{X}^T \mathbf{X})^{-1}\mathbf{X}^T does not exist. If \mathbb{I} denotes the identity matrix, however, it should be noted that (\mathbf{X}^T \mathbf{X}+\lambda\mathbb{I})^{-1}\mathbf{X}^T still exists, whatever \lambda>0. This estimator is called the ridge estimator of level \lambda (introduced in the 1960s by Hoerl (1962), and associated with a regularization studied by Tikhonov (1963)). This estimator naturally appears in a Bayesian econometric context.

Residuals

It is not uncommon to introduce the linear model from the distribution of the residuals, as we mentioned earlier. Also, equation (1) is written as often: y_i=\beta_0+\mathbf{x}_i^T\mathbf{\beta}+\varepsilon_i~~~~(3)where \varepsilon_i’s are realizations of independent and identically distributed random variables (i.i.d.) from some \mathcal{N}(0,\sigma^2) distribution. With a vector notation, we will write \mathbf{\varepsilon}\overset{\mathcal{L}}{\sim}\mathcal{N}(\mathbf{0},\sigma^2\mathbb{I}) . The estimated residuals are defined as: \widehat{\varepsilon}_i =y_i-[\widehat{\beta}_0+\mathbf{x}_i^T\widehat{\mathbf{\beta}}] Those (estimated) residuals are basic tools for diagnosing the relevance of the model.

An extension of the model described by equation (1) has been proposed to take into account a possible heteroscedastic character: (Y\vert \mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x})\overset{\mathcal{L}}{\sim}\mathcal{N}(\mu(\mathbf{x}),\sigma^2(\mathbf{x}))where \sigma^2(\mathbf{x}) is a positive function of the explanatory variables. This model can be rewritten as: y_i=\beta_0+\mathbf{x}_i^T\mathbf{\beta}+\sigma^2(\mathbf{x}_i)\cdot\varepsilon_iwhere residuals are always i.i.d., with unit variance, \varepsilon_i=\frac{y_i-[\beta_0+\mathbf{x}_i^T\mathbf{\beta}]}{\sigma(\mathbf{x}_i)} While residuals based equations are popular in linear econometrics (when the dependent variable is continuous), it is no longer popular in counting models, or logistic regression.

However, writing using an error term (as in equation (3)) raises many questions about the representation of an economic relationship between two quantities. For example, it can be assumed that there is a relationship (linear to begin with) between the quantities of a traded good, q and its price p. This allows us to imagine a supply equationq_i=\beta_0+\beta_1 p_i+u_i(u_i being an error term) where the quantity sold depends on the price, but in an equally legitimate way, one can imagine that the price depends on the quantity produced (what one could call a demand equation), p_i=\alpha_0+\alpha_1 q_i+v_i(v_i denoting another error term). Historically, the error term in equation (3) could be interpreted as an idiosyncratic error on the variable y, the so-called explanatory variables being assumed to be fixed, but this interpretation often makes the link between an economic relationship and a complicated economic model difficult, the economic theory speaking abstractly about a relationship between a magnitude, the econometric model imposing a specific shape (what magnitude is y and what magnitude is x) as shown in more detail in Morgan (1990) Chapter 7.

(references mentioned above are online here). To be continued…

[1] This approach can be compared to structural econometrics, as presented for example in Kean (2010).

[2] Here, we will try to distinguish \beta_0, the intercept, and the other parameters \mathbf{\beta}, since they are considered differently in many extensions (e.g. regularization). Nevertheless, in many expressions \mathbf{\beta} will denote the joint vector (\beta_0, \mathbf{\beta}), for general formulas, to avoid too heavy notations.

[3] In the sense that the difference between variance matrices is a positive matrix.

Profile Likelihood

Consider some simulated data

> set.seed(1)
> x=exp(rnorm(100))

Assume that those data are observed i.id. random variables with distribution, with . The natural idea is to consider the maximum likelihood estimator

For instance, consider some maximum likelihood estimator,

> library(MASS)
> (F=fitdistr(x,"gamma"))
     shape       rate   
  1.4214497   0.8619969 
 (0.1822570) (0.1320717)
> F$estimate[1]+c(-1,1)*1.96*F$sd[1]
[1] 1.064226 1.778673

Here, we have an approximated (since the maximum likelihood has an asymptotic Gaussian distribution) confidence interval for . We can use numerical optimization routine to get the maximum of the log-likelihood function

> log_lik=function(theta){
+   a=theta[1]
+   b=theta[2]
+   logL=sum(log(dgamma(x,a,b)))
+   return(-logL)
+ }

> optim(c(1,1),log_lik)
$par
[1] 1.4214116 0.8620311
 
$value
[1] 146.5909

And we have the same value.

Now, what if we care only about , and not . The we can use profile likelihood. The idea is to solve

i.e.

or, equivalently,

> prof_log_lik=function(a){
+   b=(optim(1,function(z) -sum(log(dgamma(x,a,z)))))$par
+   return(-sum(log(dgamma(x,a,b))))
+ }

> vx=seq(.5,3,length=101)
> vl=-Vectorize(prof_log_lik)(vx)
> plot(vx,vl,type="l")
> optim(1,prof_log_lik)
$par
[1] 1.421094
 
$value
[1] 146.5909

A few weeks ago, we have mentioned the likelihood ratio test, i.e.

The analogous can be obtained here, since

(the 1 comes from the fact that  is a one-dimensional coefficient). The (technical) proof can be found in Suhasini Subba Rao’s notes (see also Section 4.5.2 in Antony Davison’s Statistical Models). From that property, we can easily obtain a confidence interval for 

Hence, from our sample, we get the following 95% confidence interval,

> abline(v=optim(1,prof_log_lik)$par,lty=2)
> abline(h=-optim(1,prof_log_lik)$value)
> abline(h=-optim(1,prof_log_lik)$value-qchisq(.95,1)/2)
 
> segments(F$estimate[1]-1.96*F$sd[1],
-170,F$estimate[1]+1.96*F$sd[1],-170,lwd=3,col="blue")
> borne=-optim(1,prof_log_lik)$value-qchisq(.95,1)/2
> (b1=uniroot(function(z) Vectorize(prof_log_lik)(z)+borne,c(.5,1.5))$root)
[1] 1.095726
> (b2=uniroot(function(z) Vectorize(prof_log_lik)(z)+borne,c(1.25,2.5))$root)
[1] 1.811809

that can be visualized below,

> segments(b1,-168,b2,-168,lwd=3,col="red")

In blue the obtained obtained using the asymptotic Gaussian property of the maximum likelihood estimator, and in red, the obtained obtained using the asymptotic chi-square distribution of the log (profile) likelihood ratio.

Where does that 2 come from in the likelihood ratio test?

This afternoon, in class, we’ve seen Wald test, the likelihood-ratio test, and finally the score test. All of them rely on the same idea

and then, use that if   with , we can write

Or – slightly more interesting – if  , then

Then one can get that

Based on that property, we can derive Wald statistics,

that can be visualized below

The score test is a test on the square of the slope

The idea for the likelihood ratio test is to consider

Observe that  can be written, using Taylor’s expansion

for some . The first term is null, since the maximum likelihood estimator is precisely at the maximum of the (log) likelihood. So

That’s more or less where the 2 comes from. Then observe that

and therefore

This test will be discussed further next week (since it is related to Neyman-Pearson’s theorem), but also, that result can be used to derive confidence intervals. With a log-likelihood as follows

it is possible to get a confidence interval for the parameter by looking for‘s such that

We will discuss that idea later on, in the context of profile likelihood.

Risk Measures with Extreme Value Models

We’ve seen Monday, in the MAT8595 course how to use the Generalized Pareto Distribution to estimate some downside risk measures, given a sample (assumed to be i.i.d., I will not mention here properties on extremes for stochastic processes) with distribution https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?F. The cumulative distribution function of the  Pareto distribution is here

For some threshold , and https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?x\geq%20u, we can write

From Pickands–Balkema–de Haan theorem, if is large enough, then

Given our sample https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\{x_1,\cdots,x_n\}, let  denote the number of observations over,  threshold . Then we can write

or equivalently

If we invert this function, we get the quantile of level ,

Actually, a threshold and then the implied number of observation exceeding that threshold, it is possible to consider a fixed number of observation, and then the associated threshold will be the associated order statistics.

The density of the Pareto distribution is here

https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?%20%20%20%20%20g_{(\xi,\sigma)}(x)%20=%20\frac{1}{\sigma}\left(1%20+%20\frac{\xi%20x}{\sigma}\right)^{\left(-\frac{1}{\xi}%20-%201\right)}

which is here function of two paramters, https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?%20%20\xi and https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\sigma.As discussed in the course, it is possible to use the Delta method to derive the asymptotic distribution of any quantile, and get then an approximated (asymptotic) confidence interval.

But since https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\sigma is usually not a parameter of interest, why not considering a reparametrization of our density, as a function of  https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?%20%20\xi and https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?Q(p) (for some probability https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?p that will be considered as fixed from now on). We can easily get (assuming that https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\xi\neq%200) that

https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?g_{\xi,Q(p)}(x)=\frac{\displaystyle{\left(\frac{n}{N_u}(1-p)\right)^{-\xi}-1}}{\xi[Q(p)-u]}\left(1+\frac{\displaystyle{\left(\frac{n}{N_u}(1-p)\right)^{-\xi}-1}}{[Q(p)-u]}\cdot%20x\right)^{-\frac{1}{\xi}-1}

Tis expression is simple, and can be used to derive the likelihood (on the observations exceeding the threshold)

https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\log\mathcal{L}(\xi,Q(p);\boldsymbol{x})=\sum_{i=0}^{N_u-1}%20\log%20g_{\xi,Q(p)}(x_{n-i:n})Numerically, let us write (and plot) that function. Consider some real data here

> X=as.numeric(danish)
> Xs=sort(X,decreasing=TRUE)
> n=length(X)
> u=10
> nu=sum(X>u)

Consider, say, the 99.9% quantile,

> p=.999

The empirical quantile is here

> quantile(X,p)
   99.9% 
131.5519

The density and the loglikelihood functions are here

> gq=function(x,xi,q){
+ ( (n/nu*(1-p) ) ^ (-xi)-1)/(xi*(q-u))*
+ (1+((n/nu*(1-p))^(-xi)-1)/(q-u)*x)^(-1/xi-1)}

> loglik=function(param){
+ xi=param[2];q=param[1]
+ lg=function(i) log(gq(Xs[i],xi,q))
+ return(-sum(Vectorize(lg)(1:nu)))
+ }

We can try to plot this likelihood using

> h=201
> Q=seq(50,300,length=h)
> XI=seq(.1,1,length=h)
> XIQ=as.matrix(expand.grid(Q,XI))
> M=mapply(loglik,XIQ)

Unfortunately, it was not working, so I used the old style

> M=matrix(NA,h,h)
> for(i in 1:h){for(j in 1:h){M[i,j]=loglik(c(Q[i],XI[j]))}}

The level curves of the log-likelihood are here

> hc=heat.colors(100)
> image(Q,XI,-M,col=hc)
> contour(Q,XI,-M,add=TRUE)

Again, since our interest is in the quantile, we can draw the profile likelihood and get the maximum of that function

> PL=function(Q){
+ profilelikelihood=function(xi){
+ loglik(c(Q,xi))}
+ return(optim(par=.8,fn=profilelikelihood)$value)}
> (OPT=optimize(f=PL,interval=c(100,500)))

$minimum
[1] 111.1055

and the graph is

> XQ=seq(50,300,length=101)
> L=Vectorize(PL)(XQ)
> plot(XQ,-L,type="l")
> up=OPT$objective
> abline(h=-up)
> abline(h=-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1),col="red")
> I=which(-L>=-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1))
> lines(XQ[I],rep(-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1),length(I)),
+ lwd=5,col="red")
> abline(v=range(XQ[I]),lty=2,col="red")

which can be seen as an alternative to

> gpd.q(tailplot(gpd(X,u)),.999)
 Lower CI  Estimate  Upper CI 
 64.66184  94.28956 188.91752 

$objective
[1] 454.6481

If we want to focus on another downside risk measure, that shouldn’t be too difficult. For instance, the expected shortfall,  can be estimated as

where  denotes the mean excess function, which can be writen, with a Generalized Pareto Distribution

Thus, a natural estimator for the expected shortfall is

One more time, it is possible to re-parametrize the density of the Pareto distribution, using https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?ES(p) instead of https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\sigma. Here, we get

https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?g_{\xi,ES(p)}(x)=\frac{\displaystyle{\xi+\left(\frac{n}{N_u}(1-p)\right)^{-\xi}-1}}{\xi(1-\xi)[ES(p)-u]}\left(1+\frac{\displaystyle{\left(\frac{n}{N_u}(1-p)\right)^{-\xi}-1}}{(1-\xi)[ES(p)-u]}\cdot%20x\right)^{-\frac{1}{\xi}-1}

The code to get the associated log-likelihood is here

> ge=function(x,xi,es){
+ (xi+(n/nu*(1-p))^(-xi)-1)/(xi*(1-xi)*(es-u))*(1+(xi+(n/nu*(1-p))^(-xi)
+ -1)/((es-u)*(1-xi))*x)^(-1/xi-1)
+ }
> loglik=function(param){
+ xi=param[2];es=param[1]
+ lg=function(i) log(ge(Xs[i],xi,es))
+ return(-sum(Vectorize(lg)(1:nu)))
+ }

and again, we can plot it

and the profile (log) likelihood is here (for the 99.9% expected shortfall)

> PL=function(ES){
+ profilelikelihood=function(xi){
+ loglik(c(ES,xi))}
+ return(optim(par=.8,fn=profilelikelihood)$value)}
> (OPT=optimize(f=PL,interval=c(100,500)))
$minimum
[1] 143.66

$objective
[1] 454.6481

which could be compared with

> gpd.sfall(tailplot(gpd(X,u)),.999)
 Lower CI  Estimate  Upper CI 
 96.64625 191.36972 394.87555

Likelihood Based Methods, for Extremes

This week, in the MAT8595 course, we will start the section on inference for extreme values. To start with something simple, we will use maximum likelihood techniques on a Generalized Pareto Distribution (we’ve seen Monday Pickands-Balkema-de Hann theorem).

  • Maximum Likelihood Estimation

In the context of parametric models, the standard technique is to consider the maximum of the likelihood (or the log-likelihod).Let denote the parameter (with ). Given some – stnardard – technical assumptions, such as , or  on some neighbourhood of , then

where https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?I denotes Fisher information matrix (see any textbook for mathematical statistics courses). Consider here some i.i.d. sample, from a Generalized Pareto Distribution, with parameter https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\boldsymbol{\theta}=(\xi,\sigma), so that

https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?%20%20%20%20%20F_{(\xi,\sigma)}(x)%20=%20\begin{cases}%201%20-%20\left(1+%20\frac{\xi%20x}{\sigma}\right)^{-1/\xi}%20&,%20\xi%20\neq%200%20\\%201%20-%20\exp%20\left(-\frac{x}{\sigma}\right)%20&,%20\xi%20=%200%20\end{cases}

If we solve (numerically) the first order condition of the maximum likelihood, we get an estimator  https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\widehat{\boldsymbol{\theta}}_n=(\widehat{\xi}_n,\widehat{\sigma%20}_n) which satisfies

https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\sqrt{n}\left(\left[\begin{array}{c}\widehat{\xi}_n\\\widehat{\sigma%20}_n\end{array}\right]-\left[\begin{array}{c}\xi_0\\\sigma_0%20\end{array}\right]\right)\rightarrow%20\mathcal{N}\left(\left[\begin{array}{c}0\\end{array}\right],\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+\xi_0)^2%20&%20\sigma_0[1+\xi_0]\\%20\sigma_0%20[1+\xi_0]%20&%202\sigma^2_0(1+\xi_0)%20\end{array}\right]\right)

The idea of this asymptotic normality is the following : if the true distribution of the sample is a GPD with parameter , then, if https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?n is large enough, then https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\widehat{\boldsymbol{\theta}}_n=(\widehat{\xi}_n,\widehat{\sigma%20}_n) will have a joint normal distribution. So if we generate a lot of sample (sufficently large, say 200 observations), then the scatterplot of the estimator should the same as the scatterplot of a Gaussian distribution,

> library(evir)
> n=200
> param=matrix(NA,1000,2)
> for(s in 1:1000){
+ x=rgpd(n,xi=1/1.5,beta=1)
+ param[s,]=gpd(x,0)$par.ests
+ }
> m=apply(param,2,mean)
> S=var(param)
> library(mnormt)
> x=seq(min(param[,1])-.05,max(param[,1])+.05,length=101)
> y=seq(min(param[,2])-.05,max(param[,2])+.05,length=101)
> vx=rep(x,each=length(y))
> vy=rep(y,length(x))
> vz=dmnorm(cbind(vx,vy),m,S)
> z=matrix(vz,length(y),length(x))
> COL=rev(heat.colors(100))
> image(x,y,z,col=COL)
> points(param)

and to get a 3d representation

> x=seq(min(param[,1])-.05,max(param[,1])+.05,length=31)
> y=seq(min(param[,2])-.05,max(param[,2])+.05,length=31)
> vx=rep(x,each=length(y))
> vy=rep(y,length(x))
> vz=dmnorm(cbind(vx,vy),m,S)
> z=matrix(vz,length(y),length(x))
> persp(x,y,t(z),shade=TRUE,col="green",theta=-30,phi=20,ticktype="detailed",
+ xlab="xi",ylab="sigma")

With 200 observations, if the true underlying distribution is a GPD, then, indeed, the joint distribution of https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?\widehat{\boldsymbol{\theta}}_n=(\widehat{\xi}_n,\widehat{\sigma%20}_n) seems to be normal. That would be interesting to generate some confidence intervals for instance, or define some tests.

To go further, see any standard textbook on statistical mathematics, e.g. Casella & Berger (2002).

  • Delta Method

Another important property is the so called delta-method (we’ve seen Monday in class that it was obtained easily using a first order Taylor expansion). The idea is that if https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\widehat{\boldsymbol{\theta}}_n is asymptotically normal, and if is sufficently smooth, then https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?h(\widehat{\boldsymbol{\theta}}_n) will also be asymptotically Gaussian. More precicely (see also the header of this blog)

From this property, we can get the normality of https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\widehat{\alpha}_n=\widehat{\xi}_n^{-1} (which is another parametrization used in extreme value models), or on any quantile, https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\widehat{Q}_u=F^{-1}_{\widehat{\boldsymbol{\theta}}_n}(u)=h_u(\widehat{\xi}_n,\widehat{\sigma}_n). Let us run some simulation, one more time to check that we actually have a joint normality.

> library(evir)
> n=200
> param=riskm=matrix(NA,1000,2)
> for(s in 1:1000){
+ x=rgpd(n,xi=1/1.5,beta=1)
+ param[s,]=gpd(x,0)$par.ests
+ xihat=param[s,1]
+ shat=param[s,2]
+ q=shat * (.01^(-xihat) - 1)/xihat
+ tvar=q+(shat + xihat * q)/(1 - xihat)
+ riskm[s,]=c(1/xihat,q)
+ }
> m=apply(riskm,2,mean)
> S=var(riskm)
> library(mnormt)
> x=seq(min(riskm[,1])-.05,max(riskm[,1])+.05,length=101)
> y=seq(min(riskm[,2])-.05,max(riskm[,2])+.05,length=101)
> vx=rep(x,each=length(y))
> vy=rep(y,length(x))
> vz=dmnorm(cbind(vx,vy),m,S)
> z=matrix(vz,length(y),length(x))
> image(x,y,t(z),col=COL)
> points(riskm)

As we can see bellow, with samples of size 200, we cannot use this asymptotical result: it looks like we do not have enought data. But if we run the same code with

> n=5000

We get the joint normality of https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\widehat{\alpha}_n and https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\widehat{Q}_n(u). This is what we can get from this result, called delta-method in statistical textbooks. See again Casella & Berger (2002) for more details.

  • Profile Likelihood

Another interesting tool is the concept of profile likelihood. This would be interesting here since the main interest is the tail index https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\xi, https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\sigma being here some kind of auxilary parameter. See Venzon & Moolgavkar (1988) for more details. Here, we will plot

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/proflike01.gif

But more generally, it is possible to consider

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/profilik06.gif

where http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/profilik03.gif is the set of interesting parameters. Then (under standard suitable conditions) we can prove that

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/profilik05.gif

which can be used to derive confidence intervals. In the GPD case, for each https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\xi, we have to find an optimal https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\sigma^\star(\xi). We compute the (profile) likelihood i.e. https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\mathcal{L}(\xi,\sigma^\star(\xi)). And we can compute the maximum of this profile likelihood. This two-stage optimization is, in general, not equivalent with the (global) maximization of the likelihood, as computed below

>  n=500
>  set.seed(1)
>  x=rgpd(n,xi=1/1.5,beta=1)
>  loglikelihood=function(xi,beta){
+  sum(log(dgpd(x,xi,mu=0,beta))) }
>  XIV=(1:300)/100;L=rep(NA,300)
>  for(i in 1:300){
+  XI=XIV[i]
+  profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+  -loglikelihood(XI,beta) }
+  L[i]=-optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value }
>  plot(XIV,L,type="l")
>  XIV[which.max(L)]
[1] 0.67
>  gpd(x,0)$par.ests
       xi      beta 
0.6730145 0.9725483

We are not far away. Actually, if we want to compute the maximum of the profile likelihood (and not only compute the values of the profile likelihood on a grid, as before), we use

>  PL=function(XI){
+  profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+  -loglikelihood(XI,beta) }
+  return(optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value)}
>  (OPT=optimize(f=PL,interval=c(0,3)))
$minimum
[1] 0.6731025

$objective
[1] 822.5574

Observe that, indeed, we are not far away from the maximum likelihood estimator of https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\xi (I believe that it’s mainly a computational issue here, and theat the two are similar, here… actually, I’d be glad to hear about cases where maximum of the profile likelihood is not the same as the maximum of the likelihood). The interesting point is that we can use this technique to compute a confidence interval, and even visualize it on a graph

>  up=OPT$objective
>  abline(h=-up)
>  abline(h=-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1),col="red")
>  I=which(L>=-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1))
>  lines(XIV[I],rep(-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1),length(I)),
+  lwd=5,col="red")
>  abline(v=range(XIV[I]),lty=2,col="red")

The vertical lines are the lower and the upper bound of a 95% confidence interval for parameter https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex%20?\xi.

To go further, see Murphy, S.A & van der Vaart, A.W. (2000). On Profile Likelihood.

Maximum likelihood estimates for multivariate distributions

Consider our loss-ALAE dataset, and – as in Frees & Valdez (1998) – let us fit a parametric model, in order to price a reinsurance treaty. The dataset is the following,

> library(evd)
> data(lossalae)
> Z=lossalae
> X=Z[,1];Y=Z[,2]

The first step can be to estimate marginal distributions, independently. Here, we consider lognormal distributions for both components,

> Fempx=function(x) mean(X<=x)
> Fx=Vectorize(Fempx)
> u=exp(seq(2,15,by=.05))
> plot(u,Fx(u),log="x",type="l",
+ xlab="loss (log scale)")
> Lx=function(px) -sum(log(Vectorize(dlnorm)(
+ X,px[1],px[2])))
> opx=optim(c(1,5),fn=Lx)
> opx$par
[1] 9.373679 1.637499
> lines(u,Vectorize(plnorm)(u,opx$par[1],
+ opx$par[2]),col="red")

The fit here is quite good,

For the second component, we do the same,

> Fempy=function(x) mean(Y<=x)
> Fy=Vectorize(Fempy)
> u=exp(seq(2,15,by=.05))
> plot(u,Fy(u),log="x",type="l",
+ xlab="ALAE (log scale)")
> Ly=function(px) -sum(log(Vectorize(dlnorm)(
+ Y,px[1],px[2])))
> opy=optim(c(1.5,10),fn=Ly)
> opy$par
[1] 8.522452 1.429645
> lines(u,Vectorize(plnorm)(u,opy$par[1],
+ opy$par[2]),col="blue")

It is not as good as the fit obtained on losses, but it is not that bad,

Now, consider a multivariate model, with Gumbel copula. We’ve seen before that it worked well. But this time, consider the maximum likelihood estimator globally.

> Cop=function(u,v,a) exp(-((-log(u))^a+
+ (-log(v))^a)^(1/a))
> phi=function(t,a) (-log(t))^a
> cop=function(u,v,a) Cop(u,v,a)*(phi(u,a)+
+ phi(v,a))^(1/a-2)*(
+ a-1+(phi(u,a)+phi(v,a))^(1/a))*(phi(u,a-1)*
+ phi(v,a-1))/(u*v)
> L=function(p) {-sum(log(Vectorize(dlnorm)(
+ X,p[1],p[2])))-
+ sum(log(Vectorize(dlnorm)(Y,p[3],p[4])))-
+ sum(log(Vectorize(cop)(plnorm(X,p[1],p[2]),
+ plnorm(Y,p[3],p[4]),p[5])))}
> opz=optim(c(1.5,10,1.5,10,1.5),fn=L)
> opz$par
[1] 9.377219 1.671410 8.524221 1.428552 1.468238

Marginal parameters are (slightly) different from the one obtained independently,

> c(opx$par,opy$par)
[1] 9.373679 1.637499 8.522452 1.429645
> opz$par[1:4]
[1] 9.377219 1.671410 8.524221 1.428552

And the parameter of Gumbel copula is close to the one obtained with heuristic methods in class.

Now that we have a model, let us play with it, to price a reinsurance treaty. But first, let us see how to generate Gumbel copula… One idea can be to use the frailty approach, based on a stable frailty. And we can use Chambers et al (1976)to generate a stable distribution. So here is the algorithm to generate samples from Gumbel copula

> alpha=opz$par[5]
> invphi=function(t,a) exp(-t^(1/a))
> n=500
> x=matrix(rexp(2*n),n,2)
> angle=runif(n,0,pi)
> E=rexp(n)
> beta=1/alpha
> stable=sin((1-beta)*angle)^((1-beta)/beta)*
+ (sin(beta*angle))/(sin(angle))^(1/beta)/
+ (E^(alpha-1))
> U=invphi(x/stable,alpha)
> plot(U)

Here, we consider only 500 simulations,

Based on that copula simulation, we can then use marginal transformations to generate a pair, losses and allocated expenses,

> Xloss=qlnorm(U[,1],opz$par[1],opz$par[2])
> Xalae=qlnorm(U[,2],opz$par[3],opz$par[4])

In standard reinsurance treaties – see e.g. Clarke (1996) – allocated expenses are splited prorata capita between the insurance company, and the reinsurer. If  denotes losses, and  the allocated expenses, a standard excess treaty can be has payoff

where  denotes the (upper) limit, and  the insurer’s retention. Using monte carlo simulation, it is then possible to estimate the pure premium of such a reinsurance treaty.

> L=100000
> R=50000
> Z=((Xloss-R)+(Xloss-R)/Xloss*Xalae)*
+ (R<=Xloss)*(Xloss<L)+
+ ((L-R)+(L-R)/R*Xalae)*(L<=Xloss)
> mean(Z)
[1] 12596.45

Now, play with it… it is possible to find a better fit, I guess…

Inference and autoregressive processes

Consider a (stationary) autoregressive process, say of order 2,

for some white noise  with variance . Here is a code to generate such a process,

> phi1=.5
> phi2=-.4
> sigma=1.5
> set.seed(1)
> n=240
> WN=rnorm(n,sd=sigma)
> Z=rep(NA,n)
> Z[1:2]=rnorm(2,0,1)
> for(t in 3:n){Z[t]=phi1*Z[t-1]+phi2*Z[t-2]+WN[t]}

Here, we have to estimate two sets of parameters: the autoregressive coefficients, and the variance of the innovation process . There are (at least) three techniques to estimate those parameters.

  • using least square regression

A natural idea is to see here a regression model, and thus, if we consider a matrix formulation,

Here we can run (conditional) ordinary least squares estimation,

> base=data.frame(Y=Z[3:n],X1=Z[2:(n-1)],X2=Z[1:(n-2)])
> regression=lm(Y~0+X1+X2,data=base)
> summary(regression)

Call:
lm(formula = Y ~ 0 + X1 + X2, data = base)

Residuals:
Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max
-4.3491 -0.8890 -0.0762  0.9601  3.6105

Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
X1  0.45107    0.05924   7.615 6.34e-13 ***
X2 -0.41454    0.05924  -6.998 2.67e-11 ***
---
Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

Residual standard error: 1.449 on 236 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.2561,	Adjusted R-squared: 0.2497
F-statistic: 40.61 on 2 and 236 DF,  p-value: 6.949e-16

> regression$coefficients
X1         X2
0.4510703 -0.4145365
> summary(regression)$sigma
[1] 1.449276
  • using Yule-Walker equations

As we’ve seen in class, we can easily get the following equations for the autocovariance functions,

which can also be written

So we just have to solve a simple linear system of equations. Note that if we divide by the variance, those equations can be written in terms of the autocorrelation functions

The code is the following

> rho1=cor(Z[1:(n-1)],Z[2:n])
> rho2=cor(Z[1:(n-2)],Z[3:n])
> A=matrix(c(1,rho1,rho1,1),2,2)
> b=matrix(c(rho1,rho2),2,1)
> (PHI=solve(A,b))
[,1]
[1,]  0.4517579
[2,] -0.4155920

Now, we need to extract the estimated innovation process, from this set of parameters (note that it could be possible to include the variance term in Yule-Walker equations, to get a three dimensional linear equation)

> estWN=base$Y-(PHI[1]*base$X1+PHI[2]*base$X2)
> sd(estWN)
[1] 1.445706

This estimator is probably not the best one (we can take into account that we’ve lost two degrees of freedom), but as a starting point, let us consider this one.

  • using (conditional) likelihood estimators

Finally, we can assume some distribution for the innovation process. Thestandard model is a Gaussian model, i.e.

In that case, the conditional log likelihood (conditional since we set the first two observations here) is

> CondLogLik=function(A,TS){
+ phi1=A[1];  phi2=A[2]
+ sigma=A[3]	; L=0
+ for(t in 3:length(TS)){
+ L=L+dnorm(TS[t],mean=phi1*TS[t-1]+
+ phi2*TS[t-2],sd=sigma,log=TRUE)}
+ return(-L)}

Now, we can run standard optimization procedures,

> LogL=function(A) CondLogLik(A,TS=Z)
> optim(c(0,0,1),LogL)
$par
[1]  0.4509685 -0.4144938  1.4430930

$value
[1] 425.0164

$counts
function gradient
88       NA

$convergence
[1] 0

$message
NULL

Here, our three estimators are rather close. Actually, if we generate 1,000 time series (of size 240), those are the Box-plots of our three estimators, for the first order autoregressive coefficient

for the second one,

and finally for the standard deviation of the innovation process

All those estimators behave nicely, and are rather close. Note that they all might be biased, but they are consistent (see Davidson and MacKinnon for instance, in their book, for more details).

Tests on tail index for extremes

Since several students got the intuition that natural catastrophes might be non-insurable (underlying distributions with infinite mean), I will post some comments on testing procedures for extreme value models.

A natural idea is to use a likelihood ratio test (for composite hypotheses). Let http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest21.gif denote the parameter (of our parametric model, e.g. the tail index), and we would like to know whether http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest21.gif is smaller or larger than http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest22.gif (where in the context of finite versus infinite mean http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest23.gif). I.e. either http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest21.gif belongs to the set http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-10.gif or to its complementary http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-11.gif. Consider the maximum likelihood estimator http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest24.gif, i.e.

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-9.gif

Let http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest25.gif and http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-3.gif denote the constrained maximum likelihood estimators on http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest26.gif and http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest27.gif respectively,

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-12.gif

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-2.gif

Either http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-13.gif and http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-6.gif (on the left), or http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-14.gif and http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-7.gif (on the right)

So likelihood ratios

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-15.gif      http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-16.gif

 are either equal to

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-19.gif      http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-18.gif

or

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-20.gif        http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/lrtest-17.gif

If we use the code mentioned in the post on profile likelihood, it is easy to derive that ratio. The following graph is the evolution of that ratio, based on a GPD assumption, for different thresholds,

> base1=read.table(
+ "http://freakonometrics.free.fr/danish-univariate.txt",
+ header=TRUE)
> library(evir)
> X=base1$Loss.in.DKM
> U=seq(2,10,by=.2)
> LR=P=ES=SES=rep(NA,length(U))
> for(j in 1:length(U)){
+ u=U[j]
+ Y=X[X>u]-u
+ loglikelihood=function(xi,beta){
+ sum(log(dgpd(Y,xi,mu=0,beta))) }
+ XIV=(1:300)/100;L=rep(NA,300)
+ for(i in 1:300){
+ XI=XIV[i]
+ profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+ -loglikelihood(XI,beta) }
+ L[i]=-optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value }
+ plot(XIV,L,type="l")
+ PL=function(XI){
+ profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+ -loglikelihood(XI,beta) }
+ return(optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value)}
+ (L0=(OPT=optimize(f=PL,interval=c(0,10)))$objective)
+ profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+ -loglikelihood(1,beta) }
+ (L1=optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value)
+ LR[j]=L1-L0
+ P[j]=1-pchisq(L1-L0,df=1)
+ G=gpd(X,u)
+ ES[j]=G$par.ests[1]
+ SES[j]=G$par.ses[1]
+ }
>
> plot(U,LR,type="b",ylim=range(c(0,LR)))
> abline(h=qchisq(.95,1),lty=2)

with on top the values of the ratio (the dotted line is the quantile of a chi-square distribution with one degree of freedom) and below the associated p-value

> plot(U,P,type="b",ylim=range(c(0,P)))
> abline(h=.05,lty=2)

In order to compare, it is also possible to look at confidence interval for the tail index of the GPD fit,

> plot(U,ES,type="b",ylim=c(0,1))
> lines(U,ES+1.96*SES,type="h",col="red")
> abline(h=1,lty=2)

To go further, see Falk (1995), Dietrich, de Haan & Hüsler (2002), Hüsler & Li (2006) with the following table, or Neves & Fraga Alves (2008). See also here or there (for the latex based version) for an old paper I wrote on that topic.

a short word on profile likelihood

Profile likelihood is an interesting theory to visualize and compute confidence interval for estimators (see e.g. Venzon & Moolgavkar (1988)). As we will use is, we will plot

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/proflike01.gif

But more generally, it is possible to consider

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/profilik06.gif

where http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/profilik03.gif. Then (under standard suitable conditions)

http://freakonometrics.blog.free.fr/public/perso5/profilik05.gif

which can be used to derive confidence intervals.

> base1=read.table(
+ "http://freakonometrics.free.fr/danish-univariate.txt",
+ header=TRUE)
> library(evir)
> X=base1$Loss.in.DKM
> u=5

The function to draw the profile likelihood for the tail index parameter is then

> Y=X[X>u]-u
> loglikelihood=function(xi,beta){
+ sum(log(dgpd(Y,xi,mu=0,beta))) }
> XIV=(1:300)/100;L=rep(NA,300)
> for(i in 1:300){
+ XI=XIV[i]
+ profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+ -loglikelihood(XI,beta) }
+ L[i]=-optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value }
> plot(XIV,L,type="l")

It is possible to use it that profile likelihood function to derive a confidenceinterval,

> PL=function(XI){
+ profilelikelihood=function(beta){
+ -loglikelihood(XI,beta) }
+ return(optim(par=1,fn=profilelikelihood)$value)}
> (OPT=optimize(f=PL,interval=c(0,3)))
$minimum
[1] 0.6315989

$objective
[1] 754.1115
> up=OPT$objective
> abline(h=-up)
> abline(h=-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1)/2,col="red")
> I=which(L>=-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1)/2)
> lines(XIV[I],rep(-up-qchisq(p=.95,df=1)/2,length(I)),
+ lwd=5,col="red")
> abline(v=range(XIV[I]),lty=2,col="red")

This is done with the following code

> library(ismev)
> gpd.profxi(gpd.fit(X,5),xlow=0,xup=3)

Wald, score et rapport de vraisemblance

Vendredi, nous devrions aborder un peu la problématique des tests asymptotiques. Avant, rappelons que l’estimateur du maximum de vraisemblance de  vérifie la propriété asymptotique suivante.

Or on a une propriété intéressante sur les convergences de vecteurs Gaussiens (pour rester assez général). Soit  une suite de vecteurs aléatoires telle que  où . Alors

où  (pour un paramètre univarié, ça sera alors ). Mais ce résultat n’est intéressant que si  est connue. En fait, si on a la suite des variances vérifie , alors

Traduit sur notre estimateur du maximum de vraisemblance, cela signifie que

ou encore

Trois tests peut alors être mis en œuvre (et tant qu’à faire, on peut essayer de l’illustrer sur un exemple: encore et toujours du pile/face).

> set.seed(1)
> n=20
> X=sample(0:1,size=n,replace=TRUE)
> p=seq(0,1,by=.01)
> logL=function(p){sum(log(dbinom(X,size=1,prob=p)))}
> LL=sapply(p,logL)
> plot(p,LL,type="l",col="red",lwd=2)
> p0=.5
> points(p0,logL(p0),pch=3,cex=1.5,lwd=2)
> abline(v=p0,lty=2)

On a alors 20 tirages de pile ou face, on a obtenu 11 piles, et on se demande si la pièce est “juste“.Mais avant toute chose, commençons par calculer l’estimateur du maximum de vraisemblance, ainsi que le score et l’information de Fisher. Dans ce modèle de variables de Bernoulli, on connaît des formes explicites de ces quantités. Mais ici, on va utiliser la méthode la plus générale qui soit, i.e. on va maximiser la log-vraisemblance, puis on va calculer le score et l’information de Fisher à la valeur de  que l’on souhaite tester.

> neglogL=function(p){-sum(log(dbinom(X,size=1,prob=p)))}
> pml=optim(fn=neglogL,par=p0,method="BFGS")$par
Warning messages:
1: In dbinom(x, size, prob, log) : NaNs produced
2: In dbinom(x, size, prob, log) : NaNs produced
> nx=sum(X==1)
> f = expression(nx*log(p)+(n-nx)*log(1-p))
> Df = D(f, "p")
> Df2 = D(Df, "p")
> p=p0
> score=eval(Df)
> (IF=-eval(Df2))
[1] 80
> 1/(p0*(1-p0)/n)
[1] 80

On note que l’information de Fisher calculée par double différenciation de la log-vraisemblance est identique à la formule analytique. Pour rappels, on a

Trois tests (équivalent asymptotiquement comme on le verra en cours) sont alors possibles.

Tout d’abord le test de Wald propose de travailler sur la différence entre l’estimateur du maximum de vraisemblance, et la valeur que l’on cherche à tester (comme le montre le dessin ci-dessous). Cette différence doit être “petite” si  est la vraie valeur.On peut alors utiliser la statistique suivante

Asymptotiquement, en utilisant le résultat évoqué au début, cette statistique tend, sous l’hypothèse que  est la vraie valeur, vers une loi du chi-deux.

> alpha=0.05
> (T=(pml-p0)^2*IF)
[1] 0.1999970
> T<qchisq(1-alpha,df=1)
[1] TRUE

Ici, on accepte l’hypothèse que la pièce n’est pas pipée.

Ensuite le test du rapport de vraisemblance propose de travailler sur les valeurs de la log-vraisemblance. Là encore, cette différence doit être “petite” si  est la vraie valeur. Graphiquement, on mesure une distance normalisée

La statistique est celle d’un test bilatéral,

On pose alors

(le 2 sera détaillé un peu en cours, c’est mis là de manière à avoir trois tests équivalents). Asymptotiquement, on peut montrer que cette statistique tend, sous l’hypothèse que  est la vraie valeur, vers une loi du chi-deux.

> (T=2*(logL(pml)-logL(p0)))
[1] 0.2003347
> T<qchisq(1-alpha,df=1)
[1] TRUE

Là encore, on accepte l’hypothèse que la pièce n’est pas pipée.

Enfin, le test du score propose de travailler sur la pente de la log-vraisemblance en  . Cette pente doit être “petite” si  est la vraie valeur.

La pente correspond au score,

La statistique de test est alors ici

Et là encore, asymptotiquement, on peut montrer que cette statistique tend, sous l’hypothèse que  est la vraie valeur, vers une loi du chi-deux.

> (T=slope^2/IF)
[1] 0.2
> T<qchisq(1-alpha,df=1)
[1] TRUE

Et le test accepte ici encore l’hypothèse que la pièce n’est pas pipée.