“Le mécanisme Cat’ Nat’ va à l’encontre de la prévention”

Au début du mois, https://newsassurancespro.com/ publiait une entrevue… je me permets de remettre ici quelques éléments,

Où en est la modélisation du risque catastrophe en France ?

Beaucoup de progrès ont été faits, notamment par l’apport de l’analyse de géologues et des hydrologues qui ont modélisé l’exposition théorique aux risques catastrophes. Nous disposons aujourd’hui de cartes incroyablement précises qui permettent de connaître la nature des risques rue par rue en France, aussi bien sur l’inondation que sur la sécheresse. Pour autant, cette vision statique résiste mal à une approche en termes de flux. Ainsi, nous avons des historiques de données parmi les plus fournis du monde, mais l’existence d’un simple barrage installé en amont d’une commune peut modifier la réalité du risque sur le terrain.

Le régime des catastrophes naturelles actuel est-il viable ?

Oui. Le régime des catastrophes naturelles est viable. Parce que l’Etat intervient en dernier ressort. Cela solvabilise le dispositif. Cependant, le mécanisme va à l’encontre de la prévention. Certes, le système d’indemnisation, et plus particulièrement de franchises, tient compte de la mise en place ou non de Plan de prévention des risques naturels (PPRN) dans les communes. Mais dans un schéma ex-post, c’est-à-dire après la survenue de l’évènement.

La prévention est le maillon fondamental qui manque au régime tel qu’il est conçu actuellement. Toute réforme qui introduirait une dose de prévention irait dans le bon sens.

La gestion des risques naturels est-elle bien organisée en France ?

Assureurs, communes, régions, Etat… la gestion des risques naturels fait intervenir beaucoup d’interlocuteurs différents. Cela manque de coordination. Ainsi, mettre en place un plan de prévention du risque inondation (PRI) dans une commune est une bonne chose. Mais s’il n’est pas conçu en tenant compte des communes alentours, cela en limite la portée. Il existe des mécanismes de dépendance sur le risque inondation qui ne sont pas circonscrits aux limites géographiques d’une ville ou d’un village.

Faudrait-il aller vers plus de segmentation du risque ?

Force est de constater que le niveau de prime payé par les assurés en catastrophes naturelles est décorrélé du risque auquel ils sont réellement exposés. Il y a quelques mois, notre chaire de recherche (sur la segmentation et la mutualisation) s’était penchée sur la question. Nous devions réfléchir sur les limites éthiques de la segmentation du risque catastrophes. Les calculs actuariels de l’exposition au risque montraient des écarts monstrueux entre les Bouches-du-Rhône et l’Orne par exemple. Le sujet semble tabou chez les assureurs. Mais tarifer en fonction de la réelle nature du risque serait un pourtant puissant outil de prévention. Les entreprises réfléchiraient à deux fois avant de s’installer en zone inondable.

La suite en ligne sur https://newsassurancespro.com/

Exotic link functions for GLMs

In my previous post on GLMs, I discussed power link functions. But there are much more links that can be used :

  • The square root link (for the Poisson model)

Consider some random variable Y with mean \mu and variance \sigma^2. Using Taylor’s expansion,g(Y)\sim g(\mu)+(Y-\mu)g'(\mu)+\frac{1}{2}(Y-\mu)^2g''(\mu)we can write\mathbb{E}[g(Y)]\sim g(\mu)+\frac{\sigma^2}{2}g''(\mu) \text{Var}[g(Y)]\sim [g'(\mu)]^2\sigma^2

Assume that Y\sim\mathcal{P}(\lambda), a consider a square root transformation, g(y)=\sqrt{y}, then the second equality becomes \text{Var}[\sqrt{Y}]\sim \left[\frac{1}{2\sqrt{\mathbb{E}[Y]}}\right]^2\text{Var}[Y]=\frac{1}{4}

So, somehow, with a square-root transformation, we have variance stability, which might be interpreted as some homoscedasticity.

  • The complementary log-log function for the Bernoulli model

Assume that the true variable of interest is a Poisson one, N|\mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x}\sim\mathcal{P}(\lambda_{\mathbf{x}}) where \lambda_{\mathbf{x}}=\exp[\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta}]Thus,\mathbb{P}[N=0|\mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x}]=\exp[-\lambda_{\mathbf{x}}]=\exp[-(\exp[\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta}])]while\mathbb{P}[N>0|\mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x}]=1-\exp[-(\exp[\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta}])]=H(\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta})where H(s)=1-\exp[-\exp(s)]. Let Y=\mathbf{1}(N>0). The previous model seems like a Bernoulli regression with H as link function,\mathbb{P}[Y=1|\mathbf{X}=\mathbf{x}]=H(\mathbf{x}^T\mathbf{\beta})

So, assume now that instead of observing N we observe Y=\boldsymbol{1}(N>0). In that case, running a Bernoulli regression with a complementary log-log link function would be the same (?) as running first a Poisson regression on the original data, and then use it on our binary variable, zero vs. non-zero. Let us generate some data, and see what’s going on. Let us compare e^{\lambda_{\mathbf{x}}} and p_{\mathbf{x}} obtained from a standard logistic regression

n=563
set.seed(1)
base=data.frame(X1=rnorm(n),X2=rnorm(n))
lambda=base$X1+base$X2
base$Y=rpois(n,exp(lambda))
regPois = glm(Y~.,data=base,family=poisson(link="log"))
lambda = predict(regPois,type="response")
regBinom = glm((Y==0)~.,data=base,family=binomial(link="probit"))
prob = predict(regBinom, type="response")
plot(prob,exp(-lambda),xlim=0:1,ylim=0:1)
abline(a=0,b=1,lty=2,col="red")

What if p_{\mathbf{x}} was obtained from a Bernoulli regression, with a cloglog link function ?

regBinom = glm((Y>0)~.,data=base,family=binomial(link="cloglog"))
prob = predict(regBinom, type="response")
plot(prob,1-exp(-lambda),xlim=0:1,ylim=0:1)
abline(a=0,b=1,lty=2,col="red")

It looks like the fit is very good here ! Now, what if we have real data, like the dataset from A Theory of Extramarital Affairs, by Ray Fair, published in 1978 in the Journal of Political Economy (with 563 observations, and nine variables)

base = read.table("http://freakonometrics.free.fr/baseaffairs.txt",header=TRUE)
str(base)
x=base$SEX
base$SEX="M"
base$SEX[x=="0"]="F"
x=base$CHILDREN
base$CHILDREN="YES"
base$CHILDREN[x==0]="NO"
regPois = glm(Y~.,data=base,family=poisson(link="log"))
lambda = predict(regPois,type="response")
regBinom = glm((Y==0)~.,data=base,family=binomial(link="probit"))
prob = predict(regBinom, type="response")
plot(prob,exp(-lambda),xlim=0:1,ylim=0:1)
abline(a=0,b=1,lty=2,col="red")

In that case the two models are very different. But actually, so is the second one

regBinom = glm((Y>0)~.,data=base,family=binomial(link="cloglog"))
prob = predict(regBinom, type="response")
plot(prob,1-exp(-lambda),xlim=0:1,ylim=0:1)
abline(a=0,b=1,lty=2,col="red")

How can we interpret that ? Could it be because the Poisson model is not good ? Actually, if we run a zero-inflated model here,

library(pscl)
regZIP = zeroinfl(Y ~ . | ., data = base)
summary(regZIP)
 
Count model coefficients (poisson with log link):
             Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|)    
(Intercept) -0.002274   0.048413  -0.047    0.963    
X1           1.019814   0.026186  38.945   <2e-16 ***
X2           1.004814   0.024172  41.570   <2e-16 *** 
Zero-inflation model coefficients (binomial with logit link): 
            Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|)  
(Intercept) -4.90190    2.07846  -2.358   0.0184 *
X1          -2.00227    0.86897  -2.304   0.0212 *
X2          -0.01545    0.96121  -0.016   0.9872  
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Hence, we reject here the Poisson distribution assumption, because of the inflation of zeros… It looks like the cloglog link can be used to check if the Poisson distribution is a good model, or not…

Extracting information from a picture, round 2

Yesterday, I published a post on extracting information from a picture, but it did not work as expected. I claimed that it was because of the original graph I had. More precisely, the was based on some weird projection, and I could not reconcile. So I decide to cheat a little bit, by creating my own map,

Colors are ugly, I know. But I got them using

u = seq(0,1,length=30)
couleurs = rgb(u,rev(u),0,1)

The picture is

url = "https://freakonometrics.hypotheses.org/files/2018/12/chomage3.png"
library(pixmap)
library(png)
IMG = readPNG(url)

I used those colors because it would make things easy when extracting reds and greens…

ROUGE=t(IMG[,,1])[x1:x2,]
ROUGE=ROUGE[,y2:y1]
library(scales)
image(x1:x2,y1:y2,ROUGE,col=alpha(colour=rgb(1,0,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))
VERT=t(IMG[,,2])[x1:x2,]
VERT=VERT[,y2:y1]
image(x1:x2,y1:y2,VERT,col=alpha(colour=rgb(0,1,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))

Let us see if the contour of France can be overlaid

library(maptools)
library(PBSmapping)
download.file("http://biogeo.ucdavis.edu/data/gadm2.8/rds/FRA_adm0.rds","FRA_adm0.rds")
FR=readRDS("FRA_adm0.rds")
library(maptools)
PP = SpatialPolygons2PolySet(FR)
par(mfrow=c(1,1))
PP=PP[(PP$X<=8.25)&(PP$Y>=42.2),]
u=(x1:x2)-x1
v=(y1:y2)-y1
ax=min(PP$X)
bx=max(PP$X)-min(PP$X)
ay=min(PP$Y)
by=max(PP$Y)-min(PP$Y)
PP$X=(PP$X-ax)/bx*max(u)
PP$Y=(PP$Y-ay)/by*max(v)
image(u,v,ROUGE,col=alpha(colour=rgb(1,0,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))
points(PP$X,PP$Y)

We have a perfect match, don’t we…?

Let us now use a shapefile based on départements,

download.file("http://biogeo.ucdavis.edu/data/gadm2.8/rds/FRA_adm2.rds","FRA_adm2.rds")
FR2=readRDS("FRA_adm2.rds")
library(maptools)
PP = SpatialPolygons2PolySet(FR2)
image(u,v,ROUGE,col=alpha(colour=rgb(1,0,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))
k=35
pX=(PP$X[PP$PID==k]-ax)/bx*max(u)
pY=(PP$Y[PP$PID==k]-ay)/by*max(v)
points(pX,pY)nge(pX)

For instance, the thirty-fifth polygon is the following

Let us extract the color inside that polygon

u=1:nrow(ROUGE)
v=1:ncol(ROUGE)

The code would be

pX=(PP$X[PP$PID==k]-ax)/bx*max(u)
pY=(PP$Y[PP$PID==k]-ay)/by*max(v)
E=expand.grid(u,v)
M=matrix(point.in.polygon(E[,1],E[,2],pX,pY)>0,length(u),length(v))
image(u,v,ROUGE*M,col=alpha(colour=rgb(1,0,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))
points(pX,pY)

Now, for each département, I extract the average value of red, and the average value of green,

extract_info = function(k){
  pX=(PP$X[PP$PID==k]-ax)/bx*max(u)
  pY=(PP$Y[PP$PID==k]-ay)/by*max(v)
  E=expand.grid(u,v)
  M=matrix(point.in.polygon(E[,1],E[,2],pX,pY)>0,length(u),length(v))
nom=FR2[FR2$OBJECTID ==k,c("NAME_2","CCA_2")]
return(c(as.numeric(nom$CCA_2),sum(ROUGE[M==1])/sum(M),sum(VERT[M==1])/sum(M)))
}
donnees = Vectorize(extract_info)(1:95)
x2=donnees[1,]
y2=donnees[2,]/(donnees[2,]+donnees[3,])
df2=data.frame(dpt=x2,extract=y2)
x1=as.numeric(as.character(baseChomage$no))
y1=baseChomage$chomagePremierTrimestre2017
df1=data.frame(dpt=x1,obs=y1)
df=merge(df1,df2)
plot(df$obs,df$extract)

On the graph below, we have the original values on the x-axis (unemployement, in percent) and the “average value of red”.  Note that points are almost perfectly correlated… The accumulation can be explained because on the original map, different values could have the same color

So far, I can claim that we’ve been able to extract useful information from the original picture.

Consider the case now that the original map was the following one

The picture can be downloaded using the following code

url = "https://freakonometrics.hypotheses.org/files/2018/12/chomage5.png"
library(pixmap)
library(png)
IMG = readPNG(url)

Here, the colors are obtained from a standard palette,

library(pals)
couleurs = rev(brewer.rdylgn(30))

Here again, we use our previous code to extract reds and greens

And if we use our function

extract_info = function(k){
  pX=(PP$X[PP$PID==k]-ax)/bx*max(u)
  pY=(PP$Y[PP$PID==k]-ay)/by*max(v)
  E=expand.grid(u,v)
  M=matrix(point.in.polygon(E[,1],E[,2],pX,pY)>0,length(u),length(v))
nom=FR2[FR2$OBJECTID ==k,c("NAME_2","CCA_2")]
return(c(as.numeric(nom$CCA_2),sum(ROUGE[M==1])/sum(M),sum(VERT[M==1])/sum(M)))
}
donnees = Vectorize(extract_info)(1:95)
x2=donnees[1,]
y2=donnees[2,]/(donnees[2,]+donnees[3,])
df2=data.frame(dpt=x2,extract=y2)
x1=as.numeric(as.character(baseChomage$no))
y1=baseChomage$chomagePremierTrimestre2017
df1=data.frame(dpt=x1,obs=y1)
df=merge(df1,df2)
plot(df$obs,df$extract)

we obtain the following graph

Here again, we have a strong correlation, not to say comonotonic variables (in the sense that ranks are identical). Nice, isn’t it ?

Extracting information from a picture, round 1

This week, I wanted to get information I found on the nice map, below. I could not get access to the original dataset, per zip code… and I was wondering, if (assuming that the map was with high resolution) it was actually possible to extract information, using a simple R function…

As we can see, there is red, and green on the map, and I would love to know which are the green and the red cities, in France. One important issue is actually the background. Here it’s nice, it white… but white is a strange color, achromatic and very light. More specifically, if I search red areas, the background is very red. And very green, too. So, to avoid those issues, I did use gimp to change the background, into black. On the opposite, where it’s black, it’s neither red, nor green !

Let us get the map, and extract information from the file

url="https://freakonometrics.hypotheses.org/files/2018/12/inondation3.png"
download.file(url,"inondation3.png")
image="inondation3.png"
library(pixmap)
library(png)
IMG=readPNG(image)

Information is stored in several matrices – or in arrays.  Dimension 1 is the height of the picture (in pixels), dimension 2 is the width, and the third one is either 1 (red), 2 (green) or 3 (blue), based on the rgb decomposition of each pixel. Then, I try to find the border of the map

nl=dim(IMG)[1]
nc=dim(IMG)[2]
MAT=(IMG[,,1]+IMG[,,2])/2
x=apply(MAT,2,max)
plot(x,type="l")

When it’s null, it means no color on the line of the matrix, i.e. completly black (initially, I used the mean function, but the maximum really behaves like a step function)

y=apply(MAT,1,max)
plot(y,type="l")

Let us find cutoff values, on the left and on the right, on top and on the bottom

image(1:nc,1:nl,t(MAT))
abline(v=min(which(x>.2)),col="blue")
abline(v=max(which(x>.2)),col="blue")
abline(h=min(which(y>.2)),col="blue")
abline(h=max(which(y>.2)),col="blue")

We obtain the following (forget about the fact that – somehow – France is upside-down)

We can zoom-in, just to make sure that our border are fine

par(mfrow=c(1,2))
image(min(which(x>.2))+(-5):5,1:nl,t(MAT)[min(which(x>.2))+(-5):5,])
abline(v=min(which(x>.2))+(-5):5,col="white")
abline(v=min(which(x>.2)),col="blue")
x1=min(which(x>.2))-1

and on the vertical range

image(max(which(x>.2))+(-5):5,1:nl,t(MAT)[max(which(x>.2))+(-5):5,])
abline(v=max(which(x>.2))+(-5):5,col="white")
abline(v=max(which(x>.2)),col="blue")
x2=max(which(x>.2))+1

So far so good. Let us keep the subpart of the picture,

image(x1:x2,y1:y2,t(MAT)[x1:x2,y1:y2])

Now, let us focus on the red part / component of that picture

ROUGE=t(IMG[,,1])[x1:x2,]
ROUGE=ROUGE[,y2:y1]
library(scales)
image(x1:x2,y1:y2,ROUGE,col=alpha(colour=rgb(1,0,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01))

That’s not bad, isn’t it ? And get can have a similar graph for the green part

VERT=t(IMG[,,2])[x1:x2,]
VERT=VERT[,y2:y1]
image(x1:x2,y1:y2,VERT,col=alpha(colour=rgb(0,1,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))

Now, I wanted to ajust a map of France on that one. Using shapefiles of administrative regions, it would be possible to get the proportion of red and green parts (départements, cantons, etc). As a starting point (before going to ‘départements’), let us use a standard shapefile for France

library(maptools)
library(PBSmapping)
url="http://biogeo.ucdavis.edu/data/gadm2.8/rds/FRA_adm0.rds"
download.file(url,"FRA_adm0.rds")
FR=readRDS("FRA_adm0.rds")
library(maptools)
PP = SpatialPolygons2PolySet(FR)
PP=PP[(PP$X<=8.25)&(PP$Y>=42.2),]
u=(x1:x2)-x1
v=(y1:y2)-y1
ax=min(PP$X)
bx=max(PP$X)-min(PP$X)
ay=min(PP$Y)
by=max(PP$Y)-min(PP$Y)
PP$X=(PP$X-ax)/bx*max(u)
PP$Y=(PP$Y-ay)/by*max(v)
image(u,v,ROUGE,col=alpha(colour=rgb(1,0,0,1), alpha = seq(0,1,by=.01)))
points(PP$X,PP$Y)

We try here to rescale it. The left part should be on the left part of the picture as well as the right part. And the same holds for the top, and the bottom,

Unfortunately, even if we change the projection technique, I could not match perfectly the contour of France. I am quite sure that it’s a projection problem ! But I did try a dozen popular ones, with no success… so if anyone has a clever idea…