Yesterday, we have discussed briefly sums and maximas of i.i.d. random variables using the concept of subexponential distributions. Today, we will introduce the concept of regular variation: a positive function is said to be regularly varying (at infinity), denoted
, for some
, if

. An this concept can be related to sums and maxima (see section 6.2.6 in Embrechts et al. (1997)). Consider i.i.d. positive random variables
: let
and
. Then it can be shown easily that
if and only if

for some
if and only if the exists a non-degenerate variable
such that

with
if and only if

CONVERGENCE=function(g,p=1,n=500000){ set.seed(1) X=g(n);X1=g(n);X2=g(n);X3= g(n);X4=g(n) Tp =cummax(X^p)/cumsum(X^p) Tp1=cummax(X1^p)/cumsum(X1^p) Tp2=cummax(X2^p)/cumsum(X2^p) Tp3=cummax(X3^p)/cumsum(X3^p) Tp4=cummax(X4^p)/cumsum(X4^p) plot(Tp4,type="l",ylim=c(0,1),log="x", xlim=c(100,n),ylab="",col="light blue",xlab="") lines(Tp1,col="light green") lines(Tp2,col="yellow") lines(Tp3,col="pink") lines(Tp,lwd=2) abline(h=0:1,col="red",lty=2) }
or the following to study the “asymptotic” distribution of the ratio on simulated samples
LIMITDIST=function(g,p=1,n=500000,ns=1000){ set.seed(1) T=rep(NA,ns) for(i in 1:ns){ X=g(n) T[i]=max(X^p)/sum(X^p) } hist(T,breaks=seq(0,1,by=.05),probability=TRUE, col="light green",ylab="",xlab="",main="") }
In the case of exponentially distributed variables, we have
CONVERGENCE(rexp)

For variables with a lognormal distribution,
CONVERGENCE(rlnorm)

And finally, consider the case of a Pareto distribution
rpareto=function(n){runif(n)^(-1/1.5)-1} CONVERGENCE(rpareto)

Here, it looks like those three distributions have finite variance (and actually, they do). To go one step further, for
, define
and
. Then analogous results can be derived,
if and only if

for some
if and only if the exists a non-degenerate variable
such that

with
if and only if

CONVERGENCE(rexp,p=2)

or
CONVERGENCE(rexp,p=3)

or even
CONVERGENCE(rexp,p=10)

If the power is not too high, it looks like the ratio goes to zero. But when it becomes larger, it looks like more simulations might be necessary to say something relevant.
CONVERGENCE(rlnorm,p=2)

or
CONVERGENCE(rlnorm,p=3)

Here also, it looks like we have a light tailed distribution (and actually, it is the case). And finally, if we consider the case of a Pareto distribution
CONVERGENCE(rpareto,p=2)

Then it looks like it is an heavy tailed distribution. In order to get a better understanding, plot the distribution of the ratio obtained from 1,000 simulated samples (of size 500,000),
LIMITDIST(rpareto,p=1)

versus
LIMITDIST(rpareto,p=2)

So obviously, something is going on between 1 and 2 (recall that the power parameter of the Pareto distribution is 1.5).
such that
where
‘s are i.i.d. with cumulative distribution function
. They had supporting arguments, but no (rigorous) proof. Nevertheless, the obtained that the only possible types for G were



as possible limit. Richard von Mises gave in 1936 sufficient, but not necessary conditions for their (max) domain of attraction, i.e. characterization of function
such that the maxima converges to some specific function 
is regularly varying at infinity, with index
(even if the term “regular variation” was not mentioned in the paper). Similar results were derived to characterize functions in the (max) domain of attraction of Weibull. For the (max) domain of attraction of
, Boris Gnedenko obtained that a necessary and sufficient condition was that there exists a function
such 




(with a much shorter proof).
. For bounded distribution, consider e.g. the uniform distribution on the unit interval, i.e.
on the unit interval. Let
and
. Then, for all
and
,

. Let
and
, then

. Let
and
, then

sample. We can use the following approximation of the cumulative distribution function (based on l’Hopital’s rule)
. Let
and
. Then we can get
. I.e. the limiting distribution of the maximum of a Gaussian sample is Gumbel’s. But what we do not see here is that for a Gaussian sample, the convergence is extremely slow, i.e., with 100 observations, we are still far away from Gumbel distribution,

, if












of an i.i.d. sample
had a finite mean (based on extreme value results). Since I just used it on a small dataset (yes, with real data), I decided to post the R code, since it is rather simple to use. But instead of working on that dataset, let us see what happens on simulated samples. Consider
=200 observations generated from a Pareto distribution
=2, as a start)
>1.
(against the assumption that the expected value is finite, i.e.
), it is natural to consider the likelihood ratio
should be chi square distribution with one degree of freedom. As mentioned
, and thus, to fit a GPD on the
largest values. And then to plot all that on a graph (like the Hill plot)
the likelihood ratio statistics has a chi-square distribution).








et
ont la même loi et que l’on suppose les variables indépendantes, alors

tel que




est la copule de survie associée à
, au sens où













stands for the cumulative distribution function, it should satisfy functional equation
, i.e. 
, i.e.
with
(i.e. finite lower bound for the support), i.e. 
if
(i.e. finite upper bound for the support), i.e. 

is an arbitrary positive constant. The “2” comes from the fact that Fréchet considered errors with respect to the median. But he did not introduced that new distribution function, he also proved that the distribution appears as a limit when the underlying distribution of the
‘s has an algebraic behavior at infinity, i.e. equivalent to
, for some
. I.e. he proved that Pareto-type tailed distibutions where in the domain of attraction of the Fréchet distribution.



, and below again,
}. When then look at the position of
and the one of the mean of 


, where
is the location parameter,
the scale parameter and
the shape parameter. Note that the expected value is




Tous les blogs économiques saluent la parution en poche du joli petit livre de Daniel Zajdenweber, Economie des Extrêmes. En particulier, beaucoup de monde salue ce livre qui explique simplement des choses complexes…. Par exemple Alexandre dès 2001 “



























Talk at the statistical seminar at the Université de Bretagne Occidentale, in Brest, 



denotes the success probability. Then 
