# Variables Catégorielles et Modèle Logistique

Petit complément, suite aux coquilles qu’il y avait dans les slides, sur une propriété de la régression logistique quand on régresse sur des variables catégorielles. On était sur la base des avocats

# Data Science for Actuaries, Regression Models with R

After an introduction to Advanced R, we will discuss for the last part of our crash course visualization and graphs (from the previous set of slides), and I just uploaded additional slides on regression models (including some pdf version)

# Simple Distributions for Mixtures?

The idea of GLMs is that given some covariates$X$$Y|X$ has a distribution in the exponential family (Gaussian, Poisson, Gamma, etc). But that does not mean that $Y$ has a similar distribution… so there is no reason to test for a Gamma model for $Y$ before running a Gamma regression, for instance. But are there cases where it might work? That the non-conditional distribution is the same (same family at least) than the conditional ones?

For instance, if $(X,Y)$ has a joint Gaussien distribution, then both marginals are Gaussian, but also $Y|X$. So, in that case, if the covariate is normally distributed, it is possible to have a Gaussian distribution also for $Y$. The econometric interpretation is that with a standard Gaussian linear model, if$X$ is normally distributed, not only the conditional distribution $Y|X$ is Gaussian but also the non-conditional distribution of $Y$.

> set.seed(1)
> n=1e3
> X=rnorm(n,10,2)
> Y=1+3*X+rnorm(n)
> plot(X,Y,xlim=c(4,20))

Indeed, here the distribution of $Y$ is also Gaussian

> library(nortest)

Anderson-Darling normality test

data:  Y
A = 0.23155, p-value = 0.802

> shapiro.test(Y)

Shapiro-Wilk normality test

data:  Y
W = 0.99892, p-value = 0.8293

(not only from a statistical point of view, the thoery of Gaussian random vectors confirms that the non-conditional distribution is Gaussian actually)

Here $X$ is continuous. What if we consider a finite mixture here, i.e.$X$ takes only a finite number of values? Actually, Teicher (1963) proved that it is not possible to have a non-conditional Gaussian distribution for $Y$. But in practice, would we really reject the Gaussian assumption, for $Y$? If the number of classes is to small, yes. But with a large number of classes (a sufficiently large number of mixture components), it is possible,

> pv=function(k=2){
+ n=1e4
+ X=rnorm(n,10,2)
+ Q=quantile(X,(0:k)/k)
+ Q[1]=0
+ Xc=cut(X,Q,labels=1:k)
+ XcN=tapply(X,Xc,mean)
+ Xn=XcN[as.numeric(Xc)]
+ Y=1+3*Xn+rnorm(n)
+ ad.test(Y)$p.value} > plot(2:100,Vectorize(pv)(2:100),type="l") > abline(h=.05,col="red") So here, it could be possible to have also a Gaussian distribution, for $Y$. As least to accept that assumption, statistically. In the context of a Poisson regression, it is well know that it’s not possible to have at the same time $Y|X$ that is Poisson distributed (that’s a Poisson regression) and also $Y$ that is Poisson distributed. That simply comes from the fact that $\mathbb{E}[Y]=\mathbb{E}[\mathbb{E}[Y\vert X]]$ while $\text{Var}[Y]=\mathbb{E}[\text{Var}[Y\vert X]]+\text{Var}[\mathbb{E}[Y\vert X]]$ and because of the conditional Poisson distribution, then $\text{Var}[Y\vert X]=\mathbb{E}[Y\vert X]$ Thus, $\text{Var}[Y]=\mathbb{E}[Y]+\underbrace{\text{Var}[\mathbb{E}[Y\vert X]]}_{>0}$ So $Y$ cannot be Poisson distribution. But again, it could be possible, if heterogeneity is not too large, to accept the null assumption of a Poisson distribution for $Y$. More generally, it is very difficult to have a distribution family for $Y|X$ that is also the distribution of the non-conditional variable $Y$. In the context of a finite mixture ($X$ takes a finite number of values),Teicher (1963) proved that it was not not possible, neither for the Gaussian distribution nor the Gamma distribution. An to go further, check Monfrini (2002) (thanks Romuald for point out the reference). Hence, as a keep saying, before running a regression model on$Y|X$ with some given family, it is never a good idea to check if the non-conditional distribution $Y$ has the same distribution. Because there is no reason, usually, to remain in the same family. # Actuariat de l’Assurance Non-Vie #7 Pour le septième chapitre du cours d’actuariat de l’assurance non-vie à l’ENSAE, on abordera la modélisation des coûts individuels, aussi bien dommage que responsabilité civile.. Les slides sont en ligne (la version pdf téléchargeable est comme souvent plus complète que celle sur slideshare) # Actuariat de l’Assurance Non-Vie #5 Pour le quatrième cours d’actuariat de l’assurance non-vie à l’ENSAE, la semaine prochaine, on abordera la notion de sur-dispersion dans les modèles de comptage. Les slides sont en ligne (la version pdf téléchargeable est plus complète que celle sur slideshare) # Actuariat de l’Assurance Non-Vie #4 Pour le troisième cours d’actuariat de l’assurance non-vie à l’ENSAE, on abordera la théorie des modèles linéaires généralisés Les slides sont en ligne (la version pdf téléchargeable est plus complète que celle sur slideshare) # Actuariat de l’Assurance Non-Vie #2 Pour le second cours d’actuariat de l’assurance non-vie à l’ENSAE, qui aura lieu lundi après midi, les slides présentant les modèles classiques pour prédire des variables factorielles (classification) sont en ligne, # Computational Time of Predictive Models Tuesday, at the end of my 5-hour crash course on machine learning for actuaries, Pierre asked me an interesting question about computational time of different techniques. I’ve been presenting the philosophy of various algorithm, but I forgot to mention computational time. I wanted to try several classification algorithms on the dataset used to illustrate the techniques > rm(list=ls()) > myocarde=read.table( "http://freakonometrics.free.fr/myocarde.csv", head=TRUE,sep=";") > levels(myocarde$PRONO)=c("Death","Survival")

But the dataset is rather small, with 71 observations and 7 explanatory variables. So I decided to replicate the observations, and to add some covariates,

# I Fought the (distribution) Law (and the Law did not win)

A few days ago, I was asked if we should spend a lot of time to choose the distribution we use, in GLMs, for (actuarial) ratemaking. On that topic, I usually claim that the family is not the most important parameter in the regression model. Consider the following dataset

> db <- data.frame(x=c(1,2,3,4,5),y=c(1,2,4,2,6))
> plot(db,xlim=c(0,6),ylim=c(-1,8),pch=19)

To visualize a regression model, use the following code

> nd=data.frame(x=seq(0,6,by=.1))
+ prd1=predict(reg,newdata=nd,se.fit = TRUE,type="response")
+ y1=prd1$fit + y1_upp=prd1$fit+prd1$residual.scale*1.96* prd1$se.fit
+ y1_low=prd1$fit-prd1$residual.scale*1.96*
prd1$se.fit + polygon(c(nd$x,rev(nd$x)),c(y1_upp, rev(y1_low)),col="light green",angle=90, density=40,border=NA) + lines(nd$x,y1,col="red",lwd=2)
+ }

For instance, with a Poisson regression (with a log link function) we get

> plot(db)
+ data=db)


while, with a Gaussian regresion (but still with a log link function), we get

> plot(db)
+ data=db)
> add_predict(reg2)

If we just care about the expected value of our prediction, the output is more or less the same

> plot(db)
> lines(nd$x,predict(reg1,newdata=nd, + type="response"),col="red",lwd=1.5) > lines(nd$x,predict(reg2,newdata=nd,
+ type="response"),col="blue",lwd=1.5)

So, indeed, forget about the (distribution) law when running a GLM. Not convinced? Consider – on the same dataset – a Poisson regression (with an identity link function this time)

> plot(db)
+ data=db)


while, with a Gaussian regresion (but still with an identity link function), we get

> plot(db)
+ data=db)
> add_predict(reg2)

Again, if we just plot the expected value of our prediction, the output is more or less the same

> plot(db)
> lines(nd$x,predict(reg1,newdata=nd, + type="response"),col="red",lwd=1.5) > lines(nd$x,predict(reg2,newdata=nd,
+ type="response"),col="blue",lwd=1.5)

So clearly, the simplistic message you should not care too much about the (distribution) law seems to be valid…

# Visualising a Classification in High Dimension, part 2

A few weeks ago, I published a post on Visualising a Classification in High Dimension, based on the use of a principal component analysis, to get a projection on the first two components. Following that post, I was wondering what could be done in the context of a classification on categorical covariates. A natural idea would be to consider a correspondance analysis, and to run a similar code.

Consider here the dataset used in a recent post,

> source("http://freakonometrics.free.fr/import_data_credit.R")

If we consider a correspondance analysis, we get

> library(FactoMineR)
> acm=MCA(train.db,quali.sup =
+ which(names(train.db,)=="class"),ncp=10)

For the covariates (including also the variable we want to model, considered here as some supplementary variable), the visualisation – on the first two components – is

and for the individuals